Communication

What Is Communicated during Negotiation?

1. Offers, Counteroffers, and Motives
The communication of offers is a dynamic process (e.g., the offers change or shift over time)
The offer process is interactive (bargainers influence each other)
Various internal and external factors (e.g., time limitations, reciprocity norms, alternatives, constituency pressures) drive the interaction and “motivate a bargainer to change his or her offer.”

2. Information about Alternatives
BATNA changes several things in negotiation
Compared to negotiators without attractive BATNAs, negotiators with attractive BATNAs set higher reservation prices for themselves than their counterparts did
Negotiators whose counterparts had attractive BATNAs set lower reservation points for themselves
When both parties were aware of the attractive BATNA that one of the negotiators had, that negotiator received a more positive negotiation outcome
3. Information about Outcomes
The Effects of Sharing Different Types of Information on Negotiators’ Evaluation of Success.
If they found out that the negotiators had done better, or was simply pleased with his or her outcome, then negotiators felt less positive about their own outcome
If they learn that the other party did relatively poorly, they are less satisfied with the outcome than when they have no comparison information.
Negotiators should be cautions about sharing their outcomes or even their positive reactions to outcomes with the other party, especially if they are going to negotiate with that party again in the future

4. Social Accounts
Three important types of explanations:
Explanations of mitigating circumstances, where negotiators suggest that they had no choice in talking the positions they did
Explanations of exonerating circumstances, where negotiators explain their positions from a broader perspective, suggesting that while their current position may appear negative, it derives from positive motives (e.g., an honest mistake)
Reframing explanations, where outcomes can be explained by changing the context (e.g., short-term pain for long-term gain).

5. Communication about Process
Some communication is about the negotiation process itself---how well it is going or what procedures might be adopted to improve the situation. (e.g., some communication strategies in negotiation are used to halt conflict spirals that might otherwise lead to impasse or less-than-ideal outcomes).

How People Communicate in Negotiation
1. Use of Language
Language operates at two levels:
Logical (for proposals or offers)
Pragmatic (semantics, syntax, and style)
2. Use of Nonverbal Communication
Make Eye Contact
Adjust Body Position
Nonverbally Encourage or Discourage What the Other Says
3. Selection of a Communication Channel
Social presence
E-mail

Top Ten Rules for Virtual Negotiation
1) Take steps to create a face-to-face relationship before negotiation, or early on, so that there is a face or voice behind the e-mail.
2) Be explicit about the normative process to be followed during the negotiation.
3) If others are present in a virtual negotiation (on either your side or theirs) make sure everyone knows who is there and why
4) Pick the channel (face-to-face, videophone, voice, fax, or e-mail, etc.) that is most effective at getting all the information and detail on the table so that it can be fully considered by both sides
5) Avoid “flaming”; when you must express emotion, label the emotion explicitly so the other knows that it is and what’s behind it
6) Formal turn-taking is not strictly necessary, but try to synchronize offers and counteroffers. Speak up if it is not clear “whose turn it is.”
7) Check out assumptions you are making about the other’s interests, offers, proposals, or conduct. Less face-to-face contact means less information about the other party and a greater chance that inferences will get you in trouble, so ask questions
8) In many virtual negotiations (e.g., e-mail) everything is communicated in writing, so be careful not to make unwise commitments that can be used against you. Neither should you take undue advantage of the other party in this way; discuss and clarify until all agree
9) It may be easier to use unethical tactics in virtual negotiation because facts are harder to verify. But resist the temptation: The consequences are just as severe, and perhaps more so, given the incriminating evidence available when virtual negotiations are automatically archived
10) Not all styles work equally well in all settings. Work to develop a personal negotiation style (collaboration, competition, etc.) that is a good fit with the communication channel you are using. One of the most difficult aspects of negotiation is the actual give-and-take that occurs at the table. Should I stick with this point, or is it time to fold? Should I open the bidding or wait for the other side to take the lead? It requires good judgment to make these choices.

How to Improve Communication in Negotiation

1. The Use of Questions
Manageable Questions
Open-ended questions: ones that cannot be answered with a simple yes or no. Who, what, when, where, and why questions.
Open questions: invite the other’s thinking
Leading questions: point toward an answer
Cool questions: low emotionally
Planned questions: part of an overall logical sequence of questions developed in advance
Treat questions: flatter the opponent at the same time as you ask for information
Window questions: aid in looking into the other person’s mind
Directive questions: focus on a specific point
Gauging questions: ascertain how the other person feels

Unmanageable Questions
Close-out questions: force the other party into seeing things your way
Loaded question: put the other party on the spot regardless of the answer
Heated questions: high emotionality, trigger emotional responses
Impulse questions: occur “on the spur of the moment,” without planning, and tend to get conversation off the track
Trick questions: appear to require a frank answer, but really are “loaded” in their meaning
Reflective trick questions: reflects the other into agreeing with your point of view
2. Listening
Passive listening
Acknowledgment
Active listening

3. Role Reversal

Special Communication Considerations at the Close of Negotiations

Avoiding Fatal Mistakes
Achieving Closure


Summary

In this chapter we have considered elements of the art and science of communication that are relevant to understanding negotiations.
We first addressed what is communicated during negotiation. Rather than simply being an exchange of preferences about solutions, negotiation covers a wide-ranging number of topics in an environment where each party is trying to influence the other. This was followed by an exploration of three issues related to how people communicate in negotiation: the use of language, nonverbal communication, and the selection of a communication channel.
In the final two sections of the chapter we discussed how to improve communication considerations at the close of negotiation.

By Billy and Steven